Chromosomes are arranged in pairs, so each gene at a particular postion on the chromosome pair is represented twice. Each member of the pair is called an allele.

A substance that blocks or negates the action of another substance - such as a hormone, by binding to the hormone's receptor but without stimulating a response.

Postioned at, or towards, the front.

A protein molecule with a very specific structure, so that it will interact only with the protein or organism that induced its production in the body.

Counteracting the proliferation, or multiplication, of cells.

A strand of DNA or RNA which can bind to the complimentary strand of normal 'sense' DNA or RNA and inactivate it.

Also called programmed cell death - a natural process of cell death which happens when normal cells reach a particular stage of development or become old. It can also happen in diseased cells.

The scientific study of the chemistry of cells, tissues or organisms.

The use of computers and databases to analyse biological data or information about, for example, genes, chromosomes, DNA coding sequences or protein structures.

Relating to the biology or physiology that underlies a medical problem or the study of medicine generally.

Relating to biomolecules - or chemical compounds - that occur naturally in living organisms.

Relating to the science of physics in biology, or to the study of physical structures and processes found in living organisms.

Those branches of science, e.g. biology and medicine, that relate to living organisms and processes.

From biosynthesis - the formation (or synthesis) of a chemical compound by a living organism.

Disease characterised by the abnormal or uncontrolled growth of cells in the body.

Relating to the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular).

The treatment of disease - often cancers - using chemicals.

An organism or a population of cells derived from a single original cell, and therefore genetically identical.

is a second messenger molecule made by phospholipase C (PLC) (a membrane-bound enzyme), together with inositol triphosphate (IP3). Although inositol triphosphate (IP3) diffuses into the cytosol, diacylglycerol (DAG) stays close to the plasma membrane, due to its hydrophobic properties

is a molecular probe to detect DNA or RNA. It can easily be attached to oligonucleotides, at either 5' or 3' ends by chemical modifications

is the movement of an electrically charged substance under the influence of an electric field

a control system of ductless glands that secrete chemical "instant messengers" called hormones that circulate within the body via the bloodstream to affect distant cells within specific organs

branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones

means 'arising from within'

the layer of thin specialized epithelium, comprised of a single layer of flat cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels, forming an interface between circulating blood in the lumen and the rest of the vessel wall

proteins that speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions

the part of a macromolecule that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or cytotoxic T cells. Although usually eps are thought to be derived from nonself proteins, sequences derived from the host that can be recognized are also classified as eps

the scientific study of factors affecting the health and illness of individuals and populations, and serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of public health and preventive medicine. It is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research, and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for disease and determining optimal treatment approaches to clinical practice.

a tissue made up of layers of (epithelial) cells which lines both the inside and the outside of the body, e.g. the skin or the inside of the stomach

outside the cell

a luminescence that is mostly found as an optical phenomenon in cold bodies, in which the molecular absorption of a photon triggers the emission of another photon with a longer wavelength. The energy difference between the absorbed and emitted photons ends up as molecular vibrations or heat

G-proteins, short for guanine nucleotide binding proteins, are a family of proteins involved in second messenger cascades. They are so called because of their signaling mechanism, which uses the exchange of guanosine diphosphate (GDP) for guanosine triphosphate (GTP) as a molecular "switch" to allow or inhibit biochemical reactions inside the cell.

G-protein coupled receptor: a family of protein receptors which stimulate a sequence of reactions which transfer a signal from outside to inside a cell. They play an important role in many functions of the body including smell, mood and regulation of the immune system

Genes are the units of heredity in living organisms. They are encoded in the organism's genetic material (usually DNA or RNA), and control the physical development and behavior of the organism. During reproduction, the genetic material is passed on from the parent(s) to the offspring. Genetic material can also be passed between un-related individuals (e.g. via transfection, or on viruses).

the genome of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences.

the study of an organism's genome and the use of the genes. It deals with the systematic use of genome information

In biology, two or more structures are said to be homologous if they are alike because of shared ancestry

a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones.

the process of joining two complementary strands of DNA

or "hypergenesis" is a general term for an increase in the number of the cells of an organ or tissue causing it to increase in size. It may be due to any number of causes including (but not limited to) increased demand, chronic inflammatory response, hormonal dysfunctions, or neoplasia.

a biochemical test that measures the level of a substance in a biological liquid, typically serum or urine, using the reaction of an antibody or antibodies to its antigen. The assay takes advantage of the specific binding of an antibody to its antigen.

the labeling of antibodies or antigens with fluorescent dyes.

the process of localizing proteins in cells of a tissue section exploiting the principle of antigens in tissue binding to their respective antibodies. Visualization is enabled by tagging the antibody with color producing tags

in glass (literally). Usually taken to mean "in a test tube" as opposed to in vivo (see below)

means that which takes place inside an organism. In science, in vivo refers to experimentation done in or on the living tissue of a whole, living organism as opposed to a partial or dead one

or cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol, is a cyclic polyalcohol that plays an important role as a second messenger in a cell, in the form of inositol phosphates. It is found in many foods, particularly in cereals with high bran content. It is classified as a member of the vitamin B complex, though it is not considered a vitamin per se, since the human body can synthesize it.

pertaining to within or inside the cell

describes a process or characteristic limited within the structure of a single molecule; a property or phenomenon limited to the extent of a single molecule

any of various enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group from a donor, such as ADP or ATP, to an acceptor.

White blood cells (a.k.a. leukocytes) are cells which form a component of the blood. They are produced in the bone marrow and help to defend the body against infectious disease and foreign materials as part of the immune system.

Messenger Ribonucleic Acid (mRNA) is RNA that encodes and carries information from DNA during transcription to sites of protein synthesis to undergo translation in order to yield a gene product

the process that transforms one diploid cell into four haploid cells in eukaryotes in order to redistribute the diploid cell's genome. Meiosis forms the basis of sexual reproduction and can only occur in eukaryotes

is the biochemical modification of chemical compounds in living organisms and cells. This includes the biosynthesis of complex organic molecules (anabolism) and their breakdown (catabolism).

the process by which a cell separates its duplicated genome into two identical halves. It is generally followed immediately by cytokinesis which divides the casm and cell membrane. This results in two identical daughter cells with a roughly equal distribution of organelles and other cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together is defined as the mitotic (M) phase of the cell cycle, the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, each the genetic equivalent of the parent cell.

a small molecule that may become chemically bonded to other monomers to form a polymer

is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation. Morphogenesis is concerned with the shapes of tissues, organs and entire organisms and the positions of the various specialized cell types

In biology morphology is the study of the form or shape of an organism or part thereof

In biology, mutations are changes to the genetic material (usually DNA or RNA). Mutations can be caused by copying errors in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals (mutagens), or viruses, or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as meiosis or hypermutation

the study of the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. The concept arose from the recognition that the secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland was closely controlled by the brain, and especially by the hypothalamus

chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical signals between a neuron and another cell

a family of molecules that encourage survival of nervous tissue. Neurotrophic factors are secreted by cells in a neuron's target field, and act by prohibiting the neuron from apoptosis. In this way, target neurons are not removed

a chemical compound that consists of a heterocyclic base, a sugar, and one or more phosphate groups. In the most common nucleotides the base is a derivative of purine or pyrimidine, and the sugar is the pentose (five-carbon sugar) deoxyribose or ribose

the membrane-bound subcellular organelle found in eukaryotes, visible via microscopy, which contains, primarily, the cell's chromosomes

short sequences of nucleotides (RNA or DNA), typically with twenty or fewer bases. Automated synthesizers allow the synthesis of oligonucleotides up to 160 to 200 bases. Oligonucleotides are often used as probes for detecting complementary DNA or RNA because they bind readily to their complements

the process by which the ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop into the internal organs of the organism

of the sheep (genus Ovis)

the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. Within biology but also a branch of medicine, it means specifically the study and diagnosis of the structural and functional changes in cells, tissues and organs that underlie disease.

a family of short molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various a-amino acids. The link between one amino acid residue and the next is an amide bond, and is sometimes referred to as a peptide bond.

a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluids. It is also referred to as Hydraulic conductivity.

the study of how chemical substances interact with living systems

The phenotype of an individual organism is either its total physical appearance and constitution or a specific manifestation of a trait, such as size, eye color, or behavior that varies between individuals. Phenotype is determined to some extent by genotype, or by the identity of the alleles that an individual carries at one or more positions on the chromosomes. Many phenotypes are determined by multiple genes and influenced by environmental factors. Thus, the identity of one or a few known alleles does not always enable prediction of the phenotype

the addition of a phosphate (PO4) group to a protein or a small molecule or the introduction of a phosphate group into an organic molecule

the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms

or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea that sits in the small, bony cavity (sella turcica) at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland secretes hormones regulating a wide variety of bodily activities, including trophic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands.

In body tissues, plasticity refers to the ability of differentiated cells to undergo transdifferentiation

any of various enzymes, including the endopeptidases and exopeptidases, that catalyze the hydrolytic breakdown of proteins into peptides or amino acids

Ribonucleic acid; a polymeric constituent of all living cells and many viruses, consisting of a long, usually single-stranded chain of alternating phosphate and ribose units with the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil bonded to the ribose. The structure and base sequence of RNA are determinants of protein synthesis and the transmission of genetic information

a naturally or artificially produced radioactive is of an element

a protein molecule in the cell membrane that receives and responds to a hormone or other substance

Of or relating to a somatic cell or the somasm

any cell which makes up the body of an organism, except stem cells, sex (germ) cells, sperm cells and eggs

The connective tissue framework of an organ, gland, or other structure, as distinguished from the tissues performing the special function of the organ or part

a cell of an organ, found in the loose connective tissue which often supports, binds or protects the organ

The material or substance on which an enzyme acts.

the stimulation of a host cell to replicate the genetic components of a virus.

the process by which messenger RNA is synthesized from a DNA template resulting in the transfer of genetic information from the DNA molecule to the messenger RNA.

transfer of genetic material or characteristics from one bacterial cell to another by the incorporation of bacterial DNA into a bacteriophage

infection of a cell with purified viral nucleic acid, resulting in subsequent replication of the virus in the cell.

of, relating to, or being an organism whose genome has been altered by the transfer of a gene or genes from another species or breed

a passing or event or occurrance across a membrane

see G-protein coupled receptor

A salt or ester containing three phosphate groups

an abnormal growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled, progressive multiplication of cells and serving no physiological function; a neoplasm

the process or processes involved in the production or formation of tumor or tumors

Vascular is an adjective for the word vessel and refers to tube-like structures

a vesicle is a relatively small and enclosed compartment, separated from the cytosol by at least one lipid bilayer